EPA Lead (Pb) Research: Water

EPA researchers are working closely with the EPA Office of Water, water utility operators, local communities, and other partners to keep drinking water safe from lead contamination. The overall goal is to develop and deliver the innovative solutions our partners need to minimize risks and ultimately eliminate water as a route of lead exposure.

This work includes the following:

Pinpointing potential sources of lead in existing water infrastructure, including service lines and indoor plumbing.
Exploring the complex dynamics between drinking water infrastructure, treatment, water chemistry, and exposure risks.
Developing accessible, low-cost techniques to sample and assess drinking water and minimize lead exposure risks.
Advancing corrosion control methods to keep lead from leaching into drinking water.
Providing direct technical assistance to water utilities, communities, states, and other partners to address urgent and emerging lead contamination events.

Research Topics

Corrosion Science: Drinking Water, Lead, and Plumbing

Agency researchers are working to help communities face challenges related to lead lurking in the hidden network of pipes that bring water into our homes, schools, and businesses. The work includes studying how changes to water chemistry and quality, aging and older drinking water infrastructure—from lead service lines to indoor plumbing—can spark increases in lead levels.

A major focus is to develop filters and other control technologies that prevent or minimize related public health risks, and to provide immediate and ongoing technical assistance to regions, states, and communities facing lead in their drinking water.

Recent examples include the following:

Flint, Michigan—EPA researchers are providing technical and analytical lab support to the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality following the discovery of elevated lead levels in the City of Flint
Newark, NJ – researchers are providing technical support to EPA's Region 2, the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, and the local municipality on corrosion control, drinking water sampling and analysis, and the efficacy of point-of-use water filters.
University Park IL – researchers are providing technical support to EPA Region 5, the Illinois Department of Environmental Protection, and the local municipality on corrosion control, and with addressing elevated drinking water lead levels due to changes in water chemistry interacting with existing plumbing fixtures.
Pittsburgh PA – researchers are providing technical support to EPA Region 3 and the local municipality on corrosion control and infrastructure resilience.
Providence RI – for the past two years, researchers have been providing technical support to EPA Region 1 and the local municipality to prevent lead contamination in drinking water, including serving on an expert panel on drinking water safety.

Advancing Lead Sampling, Models, and Assessments

EPA researchers are developing new and advanced sampling and assessment methods and technologies to identify potential and actual source of lead contamination in drinking water, and support actions to minimize or eliminate associated health risks and impacts.

Recent examples include the following:

Agency researchers conducted an extensive literature review to assess the feasibility of using commercially available, easy-to-use, and inexpensive field analyzers to quantify lead concentrations in the water. Results provide important insights for states, water utilities, building managers, and others looking for faster, less expensive alternatives to laboratory analysis.
Researchers combined experiments with a Home Plumbing Simulator and the water quality model EPANET to explore likely lead concentrations in “premise plumbing systems” (PPS) served by a lead service line. Modeling results were compared to experimental data, and recommendations were made to improve the EPANET-based modeling framework for predicting lead concentrations in PPS. Learn more about EPA’s Home Plumbing Simulator.

Recent Highlights

Benton Harbor Water Study

To better understand Benton Harbor drinking water, EPA and the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services (MDHHS) conducted three studies:

A filter study to determine if certified filters are working as expected to reduce lead.
A sequential study to determine if lead is present in a home’s water and if it is coming from the home’s plumbing or water service line.
A particle study to determine how much lead is present in small particles in drinking water.

Results and more information are available under the Benton Harbor Water Study Final Results.

Also available is the Drinking Water Filter Sampling story map for the Benton Harbor, Michigan, Drinking Water Study.

Field Analyzers for Testing Lead in Drinking Water

EPA researchers conducted an extensive review of technical and scientific literature evaluating analyzers available for rapidly quantifying lead concentrations in the water flowing into in schools, homes, and other buildings. Their work provides a single resource that: describes the working principles of different field analyzers; compares various options based on manufacturer specifications, and as compared to laboratory methods.; and offers sound, research-based recommendations on what factors to consider in looking for on-site evaluations of drinking water.

Their published study is summarized and linked to on EPA’s Science Inventory.

Source: Doré, E., Lytle, D. A., Wasserstrom, L., Swertfeger, J., & Triantafyllidou, S. (2021). Field analyzers for lead quantification in drinking water samples. Critical reviews in environmental science and technology, 51(20), 2357-2388.

Searching for Solutions: Evaluating Point-of-Use Water Filters in Newark, New Jersey

EPA researchers worked with community and other partners in Newark, NJ to address concerns about lead service lines contributing to contamination in residential drinking water. As part of that work, they conducted water chemistry analysis and size fraction sampling (including scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive spectroscopy) at four houses in the city. The work is part of a larger effort to assess the effectiveness of the point-of-use filters (both faucet and pitcher types) and support a long-term strategy to improve corrosion control and reduce drinking water lead concentrations in Newark.

In a related study, Agency researchers developed a simple approach to produce lead-phosphate nanoparticles that would persist suspended in water over a 24-hour period. The development of the nanoparticle-infused “stock” could support further studies of what kind of filters or other water treatments are needed to reduce lead contamination in drinking water.

Summaries and links to the published studies for Lead Particles Size Fractionation and Identification in Newark, New Jersey's Drinking Water and Synthesis and characterization of stable lead (II) orthophosphate nanoparticle suspensions are available in EPA’s Science Inventory.

Sources: Lytle, D. A., Schock, M. R., Formal, C., Bennett-Stamper, C., Harmon, S., Nadagouda, M. N., ... & Pham, M. (2020). Lead particle size fractionation and identification in Newark, New Jersey’s drinking water. Environmental science & technology, 54(21), 13672-13679.

Lytle, D. A., Formal, C., Doré, E., Muhlen, C., Harmon, S., Williams, D., ... & Pham, M. (2020). Synthesis and characterization of stable lead (II) orthophosphate nanoparticle suspensions. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, 55(13), 1504-1512.

Modeling Drinking Water/Lead Risks to Infants and Children

In a first of its kind study, EPA researchers used two different models—(1) EPA’s Stochastic Human Exposure and Dose Simulation (SHED)-Multimedia model, and (2) the Integrated Exposure Uptake and Biokinetic (IEUBK) modeling systems—to calculate both the potential exposure and resultant blood lead levels for infants and children (ages 0 to less than six) from exposure to lead in drinking water.

“Together, these two approaches improve the understanding of how drinking water could contribute to children’s Pb exposures,” the authors of the study note in their published results. “Significant decreases in children’s BLLs [blood lead levels] can result from Pb in drinking water reduction actions,” they conclude.

For a summary of the study and a link to the published results, please see EPA’s Science Inventory entry for Modeled Impacts of Drinking Water Pb Reduction Scenarios on Children’s Exposures and Blood Lead Levels

Source: Stanek, L. W., Xue, J., Lay, C. R., Helm, E. C., Schock, M., Lytle, D. A., ... & Zartarian, V. G. (2020). Modeled impacts of drinking water Pb reduction scenarios on children’s exposures and blood lead levels. Environmental Science & Technology, 54(15), 9474-9482.

Featured Research

Research to keep lead out of drinking water is frequently featured in EPA’s Science Matters newsletter. Below are some of the most recent highlights.

Helping Communities Protect Drinking Water Systems from Lead

EPA researchers are leading innovative studies to investigate the inner workings of underground pipes and tackling the task of locating lead service lines to help local communities meet the challenges of aging water infrastructure and the risks of lead contamination. Through their outreach and technical support, they helped dozens of utilities develop corrosion control strategies to prevent exposure to lead and other contaminants. Read more: Scaling Back: EPA Researchers Help Communities Protect Drinking Water Systems from Lead

Researching Lead in Drinking Water: A Madison Wisconsin Case Study

In the early 2000s, the Madison Water Utility decided to rip out and replace the lead service lines lying beneath the city’s streets. Surprisingly, even afterward lead levels in some homes still tested high. To find out why, EPA researchers conducted detailed analysis on some of the old pipes that had been removed. What they learned provides critical insights into how utilities can better reduce the risk of lead in aging drinking water systems. The research was recognized by both the 2015 American Water Works Association’s Distribution & Plant Operations Division Best Paper Award and the overall Journal of the American Water Works Association’s Best Paper Award. Read more: Revealing the Complicated Nature of Tap Water Lead Contamination: A Madison, Wisconsin, Case Study

Helping Utilities Choose the Best Sampling Techniques

There are many types of sampling techniques available for water utilities to assess the presence of lead in drinking water. But how can they pick the best one to target specific concerns across large and complex systems? EPA researchers are helping. They have identified several sampling protocols to help water utilities assess and mitigate the risk of lead exposure. The research shows that there are different sampling techniques beyond the regulatory sampling protocols that can be applied to reach a specific objective, and each can be implemented to solve specific lead-related drinking water issues within a water system. Read more: Identifying the Best Lead Sampling Techniques to Protect Public Health

Recent Publications

Dore, E., D. Lytle, L. Wasserstrom, J. Swertfeger, AND S. Triantafyllidou. Field Analyzers for Lead Quantification in Drinking Water Samples. CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, FL, 50(20):1-31, (2020). EPA Science Inventory entry, including abstract and link to the publication for Field Analyzers for Lead Quantification in Drinking Water Samples.

Lytle, D., M. Schock, C. Formal, C. Bennett-Stamper, S. Harmon, M. Nadagouda, D. Williams, Mike DeSantis, J. Tully, AND M. Pham. Lead Particles Size Fractionation and Identification in Newark, New Jersey's Drinking Water. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 54(21):13672-13679, (2020). EPA Science Inventory entry, including abstract and link to the publication for Lead Particles Size Fractionation and Identification in Newark, New Jersey's Drinking Water.

Stanek, L., J. Xue, C. Lay, E. Helm, T. Speth, D. Lytle, M. Schock, AND V. Zartarian. Modeled Impacts of Drinking Water Pb Reduction Scenarios on Children’s Exposures and Blood Lead Levels. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 54(15):9474-9482, (2020). EPA Science Inventory entry, including abstract and link to the publication for Modeled Impacts of Drinking Water Pb Reduction Scenarios on Children’s Exposures and Blood Lead Levels.

Darren A. Lytle, Casey Formal, Evelyne Doré, Christy Muhlen, Stephen Harmon, Daniel Williams, Simoni Triantafyllidou & Maily Pham (2020) Synthesis and characterization of stable lead (II) orthophosphate nanoparticle suspensions, Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A. EPA Science Inventory entry, including abstract and link to the publication for Synthesis and characterization of stable lead (II) orthophosphate nanoparticle suspensions.

Burkhardt, JB, Woo, H, Mason, J, Shang, F, Triantafyllidou, S, Schock, MR, Lytle, D, Murray, R (2020) Framework for Modeling Lead in Premise Plumbing Systems Using EPANET. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 146 (12), 04020094. EPA Science Inventory entry, including abstract and link to the publication for Framework for Modeling Lead in Premise Plumbing Systems Using EPANET.

Muhlen, C., L. Voutsikakis, R. Murray, AND J. Tully. Technical Support Summary, Water Infrastructure Division, Fiscal Year 2019. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-20/328, 2020. Abstract and a direct link to the EPA report Technical Support Summary, Water Infrastructure Division, Fiscal Year 2019 are available on the EPA Science Inventory.